There is a world outside of experimental designs

This study introduces a co-twin control method commonly used in the medical literature but not often within educational research. This method allows for a comparison of twins discordant for an "exposure", approximating alternative outcomes in the counterfactual model. Example analyses use data drawn from the Florida Twin Project on Reading to determine if exposure to "teacher quality", measured by growth in oral reading fluency (ORF) scores of classmates, causally affects ORF performance of twins in the subsequent years. The analysis highlights Proc Mixed in SAS, including a novel expansion to allow for nested data. Results from 2,788 twins suggested that being in classrooms with lower teacher quality in first grade leads to lower ORF scores in second and third grade with little indication of possible genetic or environmental confounding.